The Golden Goose

　　ONCE upon a time an old queen,1 whose husband had been dead for many years, had a beautiful daughter.2 When she grew up she was betrothed23 to a prince4 who lived a great way off. Now, when the time drew near for her to be married and to depart into a foreign kingdom, her old mother gave her much costly3 baggage, and many ornaments4, gold and silver, trinkets and knicknacks,5 and, in fact, everything that belonged to a royal trousseau,6 for she loved her daughter very dearly. She gave her a waiting- maid7 also, who was to ride with her and hand her over to the bridegroom, and she provided each of them with a horse for the journey. Now the Princess's horse8 was called Falada,9 and could speak.10

　　When the hour for departure drew near the old mother went to her bedroom, and taking a small knife she cut her fingers till they bled;11 then she held a white rag12 under them, and letting three drops of blood13 fall into it, she gave it to her daughter, and said: "Dear child, take great care of this rag: it may be of use to you on the journey."14

　　So they took a sad farewell of each other, and the Princess stuck the rag in front of her dress, mounted her horse, and set forth5 on the journey to her bridegroom's kingdom. After they had ridden for about an hour the Princess began to feel very thirsty,15 and said to her waiting- maid: "Pray get down and fetch me some water in my golden cup out of yonder stream: I would like a drink."16

　　"If you're thirsty," said the maid, "dismount yourself, and lie down by the water and drink;17 I don't mean to be your servant any longer."18 The Princess was so thirsty that she got down, bent6 over the stream, and drank, for she wasn't allowed to drink out of the golden goblet7. As she drank she murmured: "Oh! heaven, what am I to do?" and the three drops of blood replied:

　　"If your mother only knew,

　　Her heart would surely break in two."19

　　But the Princess was meek8,20 and said nothing about her maid's rude behavior, and quietly mounted her horse again. They rode on their way for several miles, but the day was hot, and the sun's rays smote9 fiercely on them, so that the Princess was soon overcome by thirst again. And as they passed a brook10 she called once more to her waiting-maid: "Pray get down and give me a drink from my golden cup," for she had long ago forgotten her maid's rude words. But the waiting-maid replied, more haughtily11 even than before: "If you want a drink, you can dismount and get it; I don't mean to be your servant." Then the Princess was compelled by her thirst to get down, and bending over the flowing water she cried and said: "Oh! heaven, what am I to do?" and the three drops of blood replied:

　　"If your mother only knew,

　　Her heart would surely break in two."

　　And as she drank thus, and leaned right over the water, the rag containing the three drops of blood fell from her bosom12 and floated down the stream, and she in her anxiety never even noticed her loss.21 But the waiting-maid had observed it with delight, as she knew it gave her power over the bride, for in losing the drops of blood the Princess had become weak and powerless.22 When she wished to get on her horse Falada again, the waiting- maid called out: "I mean to ride Falada: you must mount my beast"; and this too she had to submit to. Then the waiting-maid commanded her harshly to take off her royal robes, and to put on her common ones,23 and finally she made her swear by heaven not to say a word about the matter24 when they reached the palace; and if she hadn't taken this oath she would have been killed on the spot. But Falada observed everything, and laid it all to heart.

　　The waiting-maid now mounted Falada, and the real bride the worse horse, and so they continued their journey till at length they arrived at the palace yard. There was great rejoicing over the arrival, and the Prince sprang forward to meet them, and taking the waiting-maid for his bride, he lifted her down from her horse and led her upstairs to the royal chamber13. In the meantime the real Princess was left standing14 below in the courtyard. The old King,25 who was looking out of his window, beheld15 her in this plight16, and it struck him how sweet and gentle, even beautiful, she looked. He went at once to the royal chamber, and asked the bride who it was she had brought with her and had left thus standing in the court below.

　　"Oh!" replied the bride, "I brought her with me to keep me company on the journey; give the girl something to do, that she may not be idle."26 But the old King had no work for her, and couldn't think of anything; so he said, "I've a small boy who looks after the geese,27 she'd better help him." The youth's name was Curdken,28 and the real bride was made to assist him in herding18 geese.29

　　Soon after this the false bride30 said to the Prince: "Dearest husband,31 I pray you grant me a favor." He answered: "That I will." "Then let the slaughterer19 cut off the head of the horse I rode here upon, because it behaved very badly on the journey." But the truth was she was afraid lest the horse should speak and tell how she had treated the Princess. She carried her point, and the faithful Falada was doomed20 to die.32

　　When the news came to the ears of the real Princess she went to the slaughterer, and secretly promised him a piece of gold if he would do something for her. There was in the town a large dark gate, through which she had to pass night and morning with the geese; would he "kindly21 hang up Falada's head there, that she might see it once again?" The slaughterer said he would do as she desired, chopped off the head, and nailed it firmly over the gateway22.

　　Early next morning, as she and Curdken were driving their flock through the gate, she said as she passed under:

　　"Oh! Falada, 'tis you hang there";

　　and the head replied:

　　" 'Tis you; pass under, Princess fair:

　　If your mother only knew,

　　Her heart would surely break in two."

　　Then she left the tower and drove the geese into a field. And when they had reached the common where the geese fed she sat down and unloosed her hair,33 which was of pure gold.34 Curdken loved to see it glitter in the sun, and wanted much to pull some hair out.35 Then she spoke23:

　　"Wind, wind, gently sway,

　　Blow Curdken's hat away;

　　Let him chase o'er field and wold

　　Till my locks of ruddy gold,

　　Now astray and hanging down,

　　Be combed and plaited in a crown."36#p#

　　Then a gust24 of wind blew Curdken's hat away, and he had to chase it over hill and dale. When he returned from the pursuit she had finished her combing and curling, and his chance of getting any hair was gone. Curdken was very angry, and wouldn't speak to her. So they herded25 the geese till evening and then went home.

　　The next morning, as they passed under the gate, the girl said:

　　"Oh! Falada, 'tis you hang there";

　　and the head replied:

　　" 'Tis you; pass under, Princess fair:

　　If your mother only knew,

　　Her heart would surely break in two."

　　Then she went on her way till she came to the common, where she sat down and began to comb out her hair; then Curdken ran up to her and wanted to grasp some of the hair from her head, but she called out hastily:

　　"Wind, wind, gently sway,

　　Blow Curdken's hat away;

　　Let him chase o'er field and wold

　　Till my locks of ruddy gold,

　　Now astray and hanging down,

　　Be combed and plaited in a crown."37

　　Then a puff26 of wind came and blew Curdken's hat far away, so that he had to run after it; and when he returned she had long finished putting up her golden locks, and he couldn't get any hair; so they watched the geese till it was dark.

　　But that evening when they got home Curdken went to the old King, and said: "I refuse to herd17 geese any longer with that girl." "For what reason?" asked the old King. "Because she does nothing but annoy me all day long," replied Curdken; and he proceeded to relate all her iniquities27, and said: "Every morning as we drive the flock through the dark gate she says to a horse's head that hangs on the wall:

　　" 'Oh! Falada, 'tis you hang there';

　　and the head replies:

　　" 'Tis you; pass under, Princess fair:38

　　If your mother only knew,

　　Her heart would surely break in two. "

　　And Curdken went on to tell what passed on the common where the geese fed, and how he had always to chase his hat.

　　The old King bade him go and drive forth his flock as usual next day;39 and when morning came he himself took up his position behind the dark gate, and heard how the goose-girl greeted Falada. Then he followed her through the field, and hid himself behind a bush on the common. He soon saw with his own eyes how the goose-boy and the goose-girl looked after the geese, and how after a time the maiden28 sat down and loosed her hair, that glittered like gold, and repeated:

　　"Wind, wind, gently sway,

　　Blow Curdken's hat away;

　　Let him chase o'er field and wold

　　Till my locks of ruddy gold

　　Now astray and hanging down,

　　Be combed and plaited in a crown."

　　Then a gust of wind came and blew Curdken's hat away, so that he had to fly over hill and dale after it, and the girl in the meantime quietly combed and plaited her hair: all this the old King observed, and returned to the palace without anyone having noticed him. In the evening when the goose-girl came home he called her aside, and asked her why she behaved as she did. "I may not tell you why; how dare I confide29 my woes30 to anyone? for I swore not to by heaven,40 otherwise I should have lost my life." The old King begged her to tell him all, and left her no peace, but he could get nothing out of her. At last he said: "Well, if you won't tell me, confide your trouble to the iron stove41 there," and he went away. Then she crept to the stove, and began to sob31 and cry and to pour out her poor little heart, and said: "Here I sit, deserted32 by all the world, I who am a king's daughter, and a false waiting- maid has forced me to take off my own clothes, and has taken my place with my bridegroom, while I have to fulfill33 the lowly office of goose-girl.

　　"If my mother only knew

　　Her heart would surely break in two."

　　But the old King stood outside at the stove chimney, and listened to her words. Then he entered the room again, and bidding her leave the stove, he ordered royal apparel to be put on her, in which she looked amazingly lovely. Then he summoned his son, and revealed to him that he had got the false bride, who was nothing but a waiting-maid, while the real one, in the guise34 of the ex- goose-girl, was standing at his side. The young King rejoiced from his heart when he saw her beauty and learned how good she was,42 and a great banquet was prepared, to which everyone was bidden. The bridegroom sat at the head of the table, the Princess on one side of him and the waiting-maid on the other; but she was so dazzled that she did not recognize the Princess in her glittering garments.43 Now when they had eaten and drunk, and were merry, the old King asked the waiting-maid to solve a knotty35 point for him. "What," said he, "should be done to a certain person who has deceived everyone?" and he proceeded to relate the whole story, ending up with, "Now what sentence should be passed?"

　　Then the false bride answered: "She deserves to be put stark36 naked into a barrel lined with sharp nails, which should be dragged by two white horses up and down the street till she is dead."44

　　"You are the person," said the King, "and you have passed sentence on yourself; and even so it shall be done to you."45 And when the sentence had been carried out the young King was married to his real bride, and both reigned37 over the kingdom in peace and happiness.46

　　1. An old queen: We find few widowed queens and good mothers alive in romantic fairy tales. Although she is alive in the tale, her ability to protect her daughter ends as soon as the daughter leaves the kingdom to be married. In essence, the mother is "dead" as soon as her daughter departs to begin her adult existence.

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　　2. A beautiful daughter: Beauty often represents goodness, worthiness38, privilege, and wealth in fairy tales. Princesses are especially expected to be beautiful. Physical beauty is often considered to represent inner beauty in folklore39, except for when it is a magical disguise.

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　　3. Betrothed: To betroth1 or become betrothed is "to contract to any one for a marriage; to engage or promise in order to marriage; to affiance" (Webster's 1990).

　　In times past, a betrothal40, as the princess and prince are joined, was one step below a marriage, but still more legally and socially binding41 than a modern day engagement, often including a public ceremony and recognition of the couple as a legal entity42. The union was not supposed to be consummated43 until after a marriage ceremony had taken place. A betrothal also took legal action to break. You can read more about betrothals online at the 1911 Edition Encyclopedia44 entry for Betrothal.

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　　4. A prince: A prince is the suitor and a common character in romantic fairy tales such as this one.

　　When fairy tales came into being "princes and princesses were as rare as they are today, and fairy tales simply abound45 with them. Every child at some time wishes that he were a prince or a princess--and at times, in his unconscious, the child believes he is one, only temporarily degraded by circumstances. There are so many kings and queens in fairy tales because their rank signifies absolute power, such as the parent seems to hold over his child. So the fairy-tale royalty46 represent projections47 of the child's imagination" (Bettelheim 1975).

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　　5. Much costly baggage, and many ornaments, gold and silver, trinkets and knicknacks: The Goose Girl is not a peasant or lower class girl raised to a higher social standing, such as the heroine in East of the Sun and West of the Moon. She begins the story as a princess and ends it as one. The story is not the more inspiring rags-to-riches story, but a riches-to-rags-to-riches tale.

　　Bettelheim also observes: "Since all the treasure and jewels given the princess by her mother are of no help to her, this suggests that what a parent can give his child by way of earthly goods is of little aid if the child does not know how to use it well" (Bettelheim 1975, 139).

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　　6. A royal trousseau: A trousseau is "the collective lighter48 equipments or outfit49 of a bride, including clothes, jewelry50, and the like; especially, that which is provided for her by her family" (Webster's 1990).

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　　7. A waiting-maid: A lady in waiting is "a lady appointed to attend to a queen or princess" (WordNet). A lady in waiting was usually from the upper classes in a higher level of honorable servitude. A waiting-maid, on the other hand, would most likely be from the serving lower class.

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　　8. Horse: Horses are intelligent, strong animals highly valued and sometimes worshipped in numerous cultures. Horses are often considered lucky in folklore.

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　　9. Falada: Bettelheim conjectures51 that the name Falada is "derived52 from the name of Roland's horse, which in the Chanson de Roland is called Valantin, Valantis, Valatin, etc." (Betteleheim 1975, 317). Bettelheim probably found this theory elsewhere, but does not cite a source. You can read an online version of the Song of Roland at Berkeley University's Online Medieval and Classical Library.

　　The name Falada has become well associated with this tale, however, and almost as easily identifies the story as the Goose Girl herself.

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　　10. Could speak: Animals with the ability to speak, and sometimes perform other human-like functions, are fairly common in fairy tales. The speaking animal is not usually surprising to the protagonist53 of the tale, but accepted as a common occurence despite the inability of other animals in the tale to speak. Another popular occurence of a talking animal helper is the cat in Puss in Boots.

　　Talking horses are popular in many cultures, even starring in a the television sitcom54, Mister Ed, in the United States in the 1960s.

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　　11. She cut her fingers till they bled: Self-mutilation to provide protection or rescue for a loved one is not uncommon55 in fairy tales. The sister in The Seven Ravens56 cuts off her finger to use as key to rescue her enchanted57 brothers. The mother sheds blood to give birth and she sheds one blood one final time on behalf of her daughter in hopes of providing protection for her in the greater world. The mother in Snow White and Seven Dwarfs58 also pricks59 her finger, albeit60 accidentally, and sheds three drops of blood before she gifts birth to her daughter.

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　　12. A white rag: The rag is more commonly translated as a handkerchief. A royal family would not need to give gifts of rags and a handkerchief is more commonly given as a token or memento61 to someone upon his or her departure. It can be an intimate item, often touching62 the skin, but free from the sexual connotations associated with other articles of clothing worn close to the skin. It is also small and easy to carry.

　　White symbolizes64 light, innocence65 and purity (Matthews 1986). White is also associated with faith and peace.

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　　13. Three drops of blood: Blood is "the essence of life, a substance bound up in folk belief around the world with the continued life, health, courage and soul of all life" (Jones 1995, 70). It is often considered to have magical qualities.

　　Bettelheim supposes that the drops of blood "symbolize63 sexual maturity66, a special bond forged by a mother who is preparing her daughter to become sexually active" (Bettelheim 1975, 139).

　　The reasons and theories behind three's popularity are numerous and diverse. The number has been considered powerful across history in different cultures and religions, but not all of them. Christians67 have the Trinity, the Chinese have the Great Triad (man, heaven, earth), and the Buddhists68 have the Triple Jewel (Buddha, Dharma, Sanga). The Greeks had the Three Fates. Pythagoras considered three to be the perfect number because it represented everything: the beginning, middle, and end. Some cultures have different powerful numbers, often favoring seven, four and twelve.

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　　14. Take great care of this rag: it may be of use to you on the journey: "Prohibition/violation: these paired functions stand as one of the fairy tale's most fundamental plot sequences.... In fairy tales, violations69 of prohibitions70 are the order of the day" (Tatar 1987, 165).

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　　15. Princess began to feel very thirsty: Uncontrolled thirstiness causes problems in another fairy tale, Brother and Sister.

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　　16. Pray get down and fetch me some water in my golden cup out of yonder stream: I would like a drink: While this sounds like the demands of a spoiled child--and perhaps she is--these are the types of tasks excepted of a servant. The princess is not making an outrageous71 request by her standards.

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　　17. Lie down by the water and drink: The princess is told to essentially72 behave like an animal to drink at the stream instead of using the golden cup she was given for such a task. By following this action, she debases herself and her position.

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　　18. I don't mean to be your servant any longer: The maid's actions are traitorous73. Not only is she rebelling against her employer, but her sovereign, a crime punishable by death in these circumstances.

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　　19. If your mother only knew,/ Her heart would surely break in two: This refrain is repeated often throughout the tale. It reminds us that while the princess is loved and cherished by someone, she can no longer rely on the protection of that love now that she is an adult and must fend74 for herself in the world.

　　Perhaps the mother's heart would break in two not only from her daughter's circumstances, but her inability to escape them through her own efforts.

　　Bettelheim observes: "To become himself, the child must face the trials of his life on his own; he cannot depend on the parent to rescue him from the consequences of his own weakness" (Bettelheim 1975, 139).

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　　20. The Princess was meek: Meekness75, whatever the personal cost, was a highly prized quality in women in times past. While the princess may seem less sympathetic by today's standards thanks to her meekness/weakness, she would be a model of womenly virtue76 in some cultures. Other critics state that she is timid in confronting her maid thanks to her own immaturity77. This is not a woman who is prepared to become a wife and queen.

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　　21. Never even noticed her loss: Like many children, the princess fails to recognize her mother's experience and wisdom. She doesn't value the gifts she received and thus loses the ability to use them for her benefit and protection. She must learn wisdom the hard way through her own experiences.

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　　22. In losing the drops of blood the Princess had become weak and powerless: The princess has apparently78 always depended on her mother's protection and guidance. Now that she has left it behind, she is no longer under anyone else's protection.

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　　23. To take off her royal robes, and to put on her common ones: Being allowed to wear royal clothing is often a distinct honor. In times past, only royalty was allowed to wear certain items or colors by royal decree. No one was allowed to outdress or outshine members of the royal family in dress. The waiting-maid is lifting herself above her station.

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　　24. Swear by heaven not to say a word about the matter: Promises, while important today, were more powerful in the past when honor was a great motivator. Also, before the time of literacy among the masses and written contracts, verbal promises were given greater weight. A promise was a contract and actionable by law if broken. Folklore emphasizes the importance of a promise by meting79 punishment upon those who do not keep their promises. In this story, the oath spares the princess' life.

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　　25. The old King: This tale honors age and wisdom through the actions of the old King. He has the experience to see beyond the surface of the events surrounding him and ultimately helps restore the princess to her rightful position.

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　　26. May not be idle: "The Devil finds work for idle hands"is a proverb that appeared in print in English in the early 18th century.

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　　27. Geese: Geese are associated with the "earth mother, maternity80, fertility, truth, love, constancy, vigilance, providence81, silliness, stupidity, female sexuality, wind, innocence, cowardice82, and the good housewife" (Olderr 1986, 58)

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　　28. Curdken: The name is most often translated as Conrad, sometimes Colin, in English versions of the tale.

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　　29. Assist him in herding geese: From hence we get the story's title and temporary name of the protagonist. The princess has been brought low and made a goose girl.

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　　30. False bride: The false bride plot device "provides the dominant83 frame story of Basile's firecracker of a collection of fairy tales, Lo cunto de li cunti [also known as Il Pentamerone], in the seventeenth century. His group of female storytellers exchange many tales of substituted brides and false queens, and at the end actually unmask a similar wicked usurper84 prospering85 in their midst (Warner 1994, 127).

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　　31. Dearest husband: It was appropriate for a betrothed couple to call each other husband and wife although the union was not supposed to be consummated until after a marriage ceremony had taken place. You can read more about betrothals online at the 1911 Edition Encyclopedia entry for Betrothal.

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　　32. Faithful Falada was doomed to die: Falada, the dear horse, is doomed to die from the princess' inability to assert herself or use her imagination. Her request to have Falada's head nailed above the gate shows little imagination. She uses her gold to keep the head nearby, not to spare the horse's life. Still, even this bribe86 and saving of Falada's head shows the most initiative she has had in the story so far.

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　　33. She sat down and unloosed her hair: This scene is the most popular among illustrators of the tale, even over the gorier87 images of Falada's head. To see many illustrators' visions for this scene, visit the Illustrations of the Goose Girl page.

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　　34. Pure gold: The Goose Girl is blonde. Golden hair has magical qualities in some cultures while it also represents the illuminated88 beauty of those it graces. Blonde hair often symbolizes ethical89 goodness as well as aesthethic appeal (Tatar 2002).

　　Gold represents virtue, intelligence, superiority, heaven, worldly wealth, idolatry, revealed truth, marriage, and fruitfulness (Olderr 1986).

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　　35. Wanted much to pull some hair out: Human hair has been valued for centuries. In many European cultures, hair was given as love tokens. It was also used to create jewelry and remembrance tokens of dead loved ones.

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　　36. Wind, wind, gently sway,

　　Blow Curdken's hat away;

　　Let him chase o'er field and wold

　　Till my locks of ruddy gold,

　　Now astray and hanging down,

　　Be combed and plaited in a crown:

　　The Goose Girl is finally gaining some autonomy. She is able to cast a simple spell, using her own magic, to save her hair from Curdken's attentions. This spell also brings her to the attention of the old king and helps him to recognize that she must be more than she appears. She is gaining some maturity through her adversity.

　　According to Bettelheim, the golden cup and the golden hair provide the same challenge to the princess. While she allowed her golden cup to be taken away earlier, she is now protecting her golden hair from a similar fate. Her "different reactions to similar situations" show her increasing maturity (Bettelheim 1975, 142-3).

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　　37. Plaited in a crown: Plaits, also known as braids, can be created in various styles. The most common interweaves three sections of hair into a thicker, stronger rope of hair. In many cultures, young girls would wear their braids down, while women would wear their hair pinned up as a sign of maturity.

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　　38. Princess fair: While Falada is usually considered an animal helper in this tale, an opposite entity to the false bride, the horse does very little to help the girl besides provide her comfort and inadvertantly identify her as a princess before the hidden king. The horse does not actively90 connive91 to help the princess, like the animal helper in Puss in Boots.

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　　39. As usual next day: Here we have another pattern of three example. While the story implies these activities have been occuring for a while, the tale recounts the same activities--Falada's greeting and the Goose Girl's grooming--three times. The third time provides change with the King's observation of the events.

　　The number and/or pattern of three often appears in fairy tales to provide rhythm and suspense92. The pattern adds drama and suspense while making the story easy to remember and follow. The third event often signals a change and/or ending for the listener/reader. A third time also disallows93 coincidence such as two repetitive events would suggest.

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　　40. I swore not to by heaven: "Despite great hardship, the princess keeps her promise not to reveal to any human being what has happened to her; thus she proves her moral virtue, which finally brings about retribution and a happy ending. Here the dangers which the heroine must master are inner ones: not to give in to the temptation to reveal the secret" (Bettelheim 1975, 137).

　　While I admire the Goose Girl's forbearance, I am not sure I agree that keeping the secret was her best choice. She was forced to make this promise under dishonest and possibly violent circumstances entirely94 against her will. Such a promise should not be kept, especially when it allows an imposter to flourish.

　　Some modern interpretations95 of the tale, such as Shannon Hale's excellent novel, explain that the Goose Girl doesn't reveal her true identity because she fears no one will believe her. She awaits the best opportunity to reveal her identity with the least amount of blood shed available.

　　

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　　41. Iron stove: The iron stove, as an inanimate object, is safe for the Goose Girl to tell her problems to without breaking her vow96. If we are really generous, we can imagine she knows that the king will listen, but she will technically97 not be breaking her promise, so her moral virture will be intact. The iron stove provides a release in an entirely different way in Hansel and Gretel where it becomes the weapon used to destory the wicked witch. Stoves are often consired to be symbolic98 of the womb and birth.

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　　42. Learned how good she was: One can imagine, as do many modern authors, a demanding, vicious maid giving headaches to the young king and the royal staff. Perhaps he is relieved to learn that this less demanding princess is his true bride instead of the shrewish harpy he has been living with.

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　　43. She did not recognize the Princess in her glittering garments: A suspension of belief is required for this frequent fairy tale plot device. The sisters in Cinderella do not recognize their sister in her splendor99 and now the waiting-maid does not recognize the princess despite having seen her in royal attire100 previously101. But then again, no one ever recognizes Superman behind Clark Kent's glasses either.

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　　44. She deserves to be put stark naked into a barrel lined with sharp nails, which should be dragged by two white horses up and down the street till she is dead: This is an exceptionally cruel punishment and means of death, exemplifying the false bride's vicious nature. It also shows her limited range of imagination. While she can imagine such a horrendous102 punishment, she cannot imagine it being inflicted103 upon herself. She has no compassion104 and only wants to see her competition destroyed. She cannot even recognize her own story as the king recounts it to her. She is a bully105, not a cunning villain106.

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　　45. You have passed sentence on yourself; and even so it shall be done to you: Full justice is served by having the maid choose her own punishment. According to Bettelheim, "the message is that evil intentions are the evil person's own undoing107" (Bettelheim 1975, 141).

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　　46. Both reigned over the kingdom in peace and happiness: Thus they are married and live happily ever after in true fairy tale fashion. Note also that they cannot live happily ever after until the villain has been destroyed and removed from their lives.

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